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The Development of the Greek World, 800-500 BC
The nature and significance of Solon’s reforms
Jeffrey Lumb
Blacktown Girls High School
and
Paul Brown
Camden High School
Outcomes
| H1.1 | describe and assess the significance of key people, groups, events, institutions, societies and sites within the historical context |
| H2.1 | explain historical factors and assess their significance in contributing to change and continuity in the ancient world |
| H4.1 | use historical terms and concepts appropriately |
| H3.4 | explain and evaluate differing perspectives and interpretations of the past |
| H3.3 | analyse and evaluate sources for their usefulness and reliability |
Principal Focus: Through an investigation of the archaeological and written sources for the development for the Greek world 800 – 500BC, students learn about significant developments, forces and relevant historiographical issues that shaped the historical period.
Students learn about:
Athens and Sparta:
- nature and significance of Solon’s reforms
Glossary
Content
- Chronology of political change in Athens
- Background: Before Solon
- Solon as archon
- Solon's economic policies
- Solon's political policies
- Comments on the effectiveness of Solon's policies
- Revision
- Looking further
Chronology of political change in Athens
|
Date(s) B.C. |
Events |
|---|---|
| 621 | Laws of Dracon There are no extant primary sources for Dracon's work. Evidence suggests he introduced a codified set of laws in writing and introduced the hoplite franchise. The English word draconian is derived from his name. |
| 594 |
Solon was appointed sole archon, with powers to inaugurate reforms. He cancelled all land debts (seisachtheia), freed all debt slaves (hektemoroi), instituted a milder code of laws, and established a redistribution of political powers. He divided the citizens into four property classes, each of which was eligible for certain political offices. He set up the Council of 400 and increased the powers of the assembly. (See Herodotus, The Histories, I, 29-34 and Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 5-13) |
|
561-527 |
Peisistratus (Peisistratos) the tyrant ruled Athens. His tyranny was an important stage as his rule was able to further diminish the power of the aristocracy. (See Herodotus, The Histories, I, 59–64 and Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 13-17) |
|
527-508 |
A period of instability. Cleisthenes came to power and introduced democratic reforms. Citizenship was no longer defined in terms of the four traditional tribal ties. Ten new tribes were formed, each tribe made up of trittyes (thirds), [based on the geographic location: city, inland and coast] and the trittyes were made up of demes. The membership of the deme guaranteed citizenship. The Assembly of 500 was also created during his leadership. (See Herodotus, The Histories, V, 66, 69, 73 and Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 20) |
|
495 |
Pericles (nephew of Cleisthenes) was born. |
Background: Before Solon
1. The Eupatrids or nobles were the large landowners who were largely corn-growers and to some extent cattle-breeders. They held most of the fertile land in Attica. They also held the important offices of state and the priesthood and ruled the community as the heirs to the power of the kings.
2. Victor Ehrenberg says: "They formed a more or less united front of the wealthy and powerful against those who had no political rights, the free peasants and the landless."
3. The small farmers generally lived on the poorer land in the hills.
4. With the introduction of the phalanx and the use of hoplites or heavily armoured troops, the main strength of the army now came from the non-nobles. This gave this group more influence in politics.
The social crisis
1. The first sign of problems in Attica was the attempt by Cylon c.632 to establish a tyranny. It failed, and the work of Dracon to write down and codify the laws of the land for the first time may have come from a promise made by the nobles after Cylon's failure. 2. Ehrenberg believes "part of the social crisis which Solon was to overcome, must have been caused by laws of a clearly severe nature." 3. Down to the time of Solon, money had exterted hardly any influence on Attica. Land and its produce were the important factors, and the Eupatrids controlled this. Aristotle (AP 2) says: "the poor with their wives and children were in servitude to the rich"; and that "all the land was in the hands of the few". Plutarch in Solon 13, 4 says "the whole demos was in . . . debt to the rich." 4. For the Eupatrids it was possible to buy out a farmer who was indebted; their farms were therefore alienable. 5. Athens did not take part in colonisation like the rest of Greece, and this probably meant family farms were divided among several sons. This would mean severe economic hardship over a period of time. 6. Around the Attic countryside were horoi (plural of horos), stone pillars which were neither purely boundary nor mortgage stones, but were set up to indicate that the land and its crop were under a pledge. 7. Ehrenberg suggests that these horoi may have indicated a kind of class warfare going on between the nobles and the peasants which was forcing them into dependence and into serving as labourers on their estates. 8. The peasants would become enslaved by borrowing corn or seed in bad times and then failing to recover prosperity, having to lose their land and even their freedom. 9. Those that had horoi erected on their land were called hektemorioi (sixth partners) and were compelled to pay one-sixth of their produce to the nobles. They could not sell their land under these conditions. 10. The rate of repayment of debts must have been a big problem. 11. Another sign of the crisis was when grazing land was turned into poor arable land with consequent erosion problems. 12. Solon also mentions "many who, lawfully or not, had been sold abroad" and others who had fled from Attica because of debts and "had even forgotten their Attic speech - so widely had they been wandering" (and for so long). 13. It was possible to sell a man and his family into slavery for debt, according to Aristotle. 14. These conditions would have further worsened with a few bad harvests, some hostile raids from neighbours, increased economic competition and also because of what Solon calls the "avarice and arrogance" of the nobles. 15. The choice seemed to be either political change or revolution. The nobles realised that they would lose more in a revolution than if they voluntarily gave up some of their privileges, and this is why Solon was called in.
Solon as archon
"He took away the record-stones that everywhere
were planted
before, earth was in bondage, now she is
free”
Plutarch, Solon, Fragment. 36. 4-5 
Solon was archon eponymous of Athens in 594/3 B.C. His appointment, by common consent, is described in the Athenaion Politeia as that of "a mediator with extraordinary powers" and in Plutarch as a "mediator and lawgiver".
His reforms are generally dated to the year that he was archon,
but some sources suggest that they may have been later, as he
would have commanded more respect when he had been an ex-archon
and member of the areopagus for many years.
Solon's economic policies
1. His main policy was the "seisachtheia" or "shaking off of the burdens". By this policy he cancelled the land debts of the poor. He boasted of having freed the land by moving the horoi, which were planted everywhere. There was no confiscation or general distribution of land, however. This deliverance for ordinary Athenians was celebrated by a public feast (Bury).
2. He forbade all further loans on the security of the person.
3. He fixed a limit for the measure of land which could be owned by a single person, so as to prevent the growth of overly large estates (Bury).
4. He also re-purchased Athenians who had been sold as slaves abroad and returned them to Athens.
5. He particularly wished to encourage trade and commerce.
6. He gave full citizenship to foreign craftsmen who would migrate to Athens. There is evidence of Corinthian potters who took up this offer and gave new impetus to the Athenian pottery industry. As well, some of the foreigners helped with the expansion of ship-building which was necessary for an increase in trade. These foreigners were called metics.
7. Solon is also credited with the modification of the weights, measures and coinage systems. The currency may have been formerly based on the Aeginetan system that was used in the Peloponnesus, but this was restrictive, so Solon now had it based on the Euboean currency, which was readily exchanged with the Ionian and Eastern currencies. This would have facilitated trade with Ionia.
8. He regulated exports and imports e.g. the prohibition of the export of any agricultural product except olive oil. This halted the disastrous export of wheat, which was generally needed to feed the people.
9. A father was now compelled to teach his son a trade; if he failed to do so, the son did not have to keep his father in his old age. This move was important if Athens was to maintain a skilled workforce.
10. He offered rewards for the capture of wolves, encouraged the
sinking of wells, aided the development of shrub cultivation and
prohibited the destruction of olive groves.
Solon's political policies
1. He established a new ruling body, the boule
or council, composed of 400 members. He claimed
its function was to hold the balance between the areopagus
(Council of Elders) and the ecclesia (Assembly of
Citizens).
2. He created four new classes that were based on wealth and not on birth, that is, a timocracy.
* Pentekosiomedimni (500 bushelmen): those whose land produced an annual minimum of 500 medimni of grain or 500 measures of wine. They could become archons and treasurers, the highest political offices. They could also serve on the boule, areopagus and heliaea (the courts). They would have served as hoplites.
* Hippeis (knights or 300 bushelmen): those whose land produced 300 medimni of grain or 300 measures of wine. They also served as hoplites and took a role in the boule and heliaea as well as attending the ecclesia (assembly).
* Zeugitae: Owners of a yoke of oxen or whose production was 200 medimni of grain or 200 measures of wine. They also served as hoplites and took a role in the boule and heliaea as well as attending the ecclesia (assembly).
* Thetes: Those whose production was below 200 bushels of grain i.e. small-scale farmers. Their main political role was to attend the ecclesia and heliaea. This was important, though, as the ecclesia elected the officials, and the heliaea could try any magistrates who had acted improperly. They also served as light armed troops or sailors during war.
3. The areopagus now had its power reduced as the boule took over the role of preparing the legislation for the ecclesia. It was given the power to forbid any legislation that was unconstitutional, so it became the protector of the constitution. Its make-up changed too, as it consisted of the archons who were now elected by all citizens.
4. Solon is credited with reforming the criminal code, leaving only Dracon's laws relating to homicide. His own laws were inscribed on wooden tablets set in revolving frames called axones, which were numbered, and the laws were quoted by the number on the axon. Every citizen was required to take an oath that he would obey these laws.
5. The courts were made up from all citizens, and the panels of judges were selected by lot (i.e. their names were chosen from an urn or piece of pottery). This meant all classes of citizens had a chance to act as judges. As these courts overviewed the conduct of all officials (magistrates), they were, at least in theory, in complete control of the state.
6. The use of lots for the purpose of appointing public
officials was a feature of Solon's reforms. According to the
ideas of the day, the lot committed the decision to the gods. It
also prevented the undue influence of clans and parties. There
was direct election of 10 candidates from each of the tribes.
From this elected group, nine candidates were selected by lot to
fill the annual positions of archons. There were nine archons
chosen annually by this mixed voting method. This method provided
a safeguard against unsuitable candidates.
See also The economic effects
of Solon's policies.
Comments on the effectiveness of Solon's policies
A writer of poetry as well as a political, social and economic reformer, here is what Solon, himself, wrote about his efforts
To the people I gave as much power as was
sufficient,
Neither taking from their honour nor giving them excess;
As for those who held power and were envied for their
wealth,
I saw that they too should have nothing improper.
I stood there casting my sturdy shield over both sides
And allowed neither to conquer unjustly.
1. The measures of the seisachtheia "hit the rich hard, and created discontent with the reformer, while, on the other hand, he was far from satisfying the desires and hopes of the masses." (Bury.)
2. For Athenian democracy "Solon not only laid the foundations, he shaped the framework." (Bury.)
3. The establishment of the popular courts (heliaea) "invested the people with a supreme control over the administration." (Bury.)
4. Solon maintained the principle that the privileges of each class should be proportional to the public burdens which it bears.
5. His reforms postponed tyranny in Athens for thirty years, although there was considerable social unrest, even during his time.
6. " Solon's economic and political reforms averted the crisis at Athens without civil war or tyranny." (Littman.)
7. His reforms had only temporary success "mainly due to his failure to break the power of the old aristocrats. Although the new rich had been admitted to higher offices, the old aristocracy still retained much of its power." (Littman.)
8. Solon's economic reforms "helped to give a new direction to Attic trade." (A. Andrews.)
Sources
Andrews, A. The Greek Tyrants. Hutchinson, London,
1974.
Aristotle. The Athenian Constitution, trans. P.J. Rhodes.
Penguin Classics, Harmondsworth, 1984.
Bury, J.B. & Meiggs, R. A History of Greece. 4th ed.
Macmillan Press, London, 1975.
Ehrenberg, V. From Solon to Socrates. Methuen, London.
1968.
Littman, R.J., The Greek Experiment, Imperialism and Social
Conflict 800-400BC. Thames and Hudson, London, 1974.
Plutarch. The Rise and Fall of Athens: Nine Greek Lives.
Penguin Classics, Harmondsworth, 1960.
Revision
|
Plutarch "Life of Solon" http://www.e-classics.com/solon.htm Click on the web address above and read what Plutarch wrote about Solon. Now answer the following questions:
|
Looking further
All of these books are easily obtainable:
| Bradley, P. | Ancient Greece: using evidence, pp 84-91 |
| Bury, J. B. & Meiggs, R. | A History of Greece, pp 121-126 |
| Ehrenberg, V. | From Solon to Socrates, pp 57-75 |
| Kelly, M. | View from Olympus, pp 58-63 |
| Koutsoukis, A. J. | History of the Ancient World - Ancient Greece, pp 52-55 |
| Roebuck, C. | The World of Ancient Times, pp 206-210 |
The following Internet sites are excellent sources for a number of aspects relating to this historical period:
Select Fragments on Solon
http://homepage.usask.ca/~jrp638/DeptTransls/Solon.html
http://homepage.usask.ca/~jrp638/CourseNotes/SolonNotes.html
An excellent overview of the period Solon to Cleisthenes from
John Porter at the University of Sasketchewan
The Bouleuterion - birthplace of democracy
http://www.fhw.gr/projects/bouleuterion/en/
Classics Resources
http://www.artsci.wustl.edu/~cwconrad/classics.html
An excellent site that has links to everything in the ancient
world
The Perseus project
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/
Another excellent source for ancient Greece
Good overview of the period: http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/GREECE/ATHENS.HTM
The Greeks: Crucible of Civilisation (also has Flash 4
version)
http://www.pbs.org/empires/thegreeks/
An excellent animated site with sound based around the
acclaimed T.V. series
The Herodotus web site: http://www.herodotuswebsite.co.uk/
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