Dracon

The 7th century B.C. was a time of social, economic and political change. The polis had established political structures based on a hereditary class system (Aristotle, Constitution of the Athenians Fr. 1). Herodotus, Histories 5.70.2 , Aristotle, Constitution of the Athenians 4, and Thomas R. Martin, An Overview of Classical Greek History from Homer to Alexander , outline the political struggles of this period.

The political struggles of this century were stabilised in part by the reforms of Dracon 621-620 B.C. (Aristotle, Constitution of the Athenians 4.1 ). Dracon was responsible for the codification of laws to minimise their arbitrary enforcement by the nobles; there were severe punishments for law-breaking, some limitation on nobles' power but he did not attempt economic reform. The Draconian reforms, however, were to be supplanted by the reforms of Solon in 594-593 B.C.

Solon

View a more detailed account of Solon's works.

Generally, the reforms of Solon are recognised as the beginnings of Athenian democracy (Herodotus 1.29). Aristotle's Constitution of the Athenians (2 and 5-12) outlines the reforms of Solon. The two major innovations that Solon introduced were the division of citizens into classes based on property, and the Council of Four Hundred (Aristotle, Constitution of the Athenians 7). Solon was Archon Eponymous in 594 B.C.; he attempted to solve economic and political problems with a series of reforms  

Economic reforms

To close the gap between rich and poor, debts of enslaved peasants were cancelled, enslavement for debt was made illegal and those enslaved set free (all this was called "seisachtheia", the lifting of burdens).

In order to boost the economy, a legal maximum of expenditure on funerals and festivities was set.

The export of home produce, except the olive, was forbidden so as to make Athens as self-supporting as possible and to encourage the olive industry.

Overseas trade was encouraged.

The immigration to Athens of foreign artisans (metics) was encouraged in order to promote industry, provide work and to develop an artisan class.

Fathers were required to teach their sons a trade.

The development of a system of native currency, weights and measures was to assist trade. It was later to become the standard for the rest of Greece.

Political reforms 

The powers of the Areopagus were left intact with the function of guarding the laws.

Archons still came from the upper class; however society was re-classified on an economic-political basis:

* The first class, the hippeis (500 + or 300 + measures of produce a year), from whom came the Magistrates, 

* The second class, the zeugitae (200 measures a year), who elected the Magistrates

* The third class, the thetes, who were allowed membership in the Ecclesia and the Heliaea.

The result was that more people, other than nobles and upper classes, had some say in administration and in government.

The rights and powers of the ecclesia were confirmed with a voice in the choice of magistrates and in the declaration of war and peace.

Solon is also credited with the institution of the council of four hundred (boule) to manage the Ecclesia and prepare its business. Members of the boule were chosen by Solon from the first two classes.

People's courts known as heliaea, were established, courts of appeal with a jury system and jury-service open to the people. There was an increase in the number of courts. In general terms, the new code of laws was more humane than those of Dracon.

So the first steps towards democratic or popular government were taken by Solon.

His own writings are important in setting out his aims along these lines.

Solon retired from Athens after his reforms; however discontent of the nobles and others with his reforms led to fierce factional fighting for control in Athens, the Men of the Plain, the Men of the Coast, and the Men of the Hill forming the different factions.

* The country was divided into 10 new tribes on a regional basis, with sections of the 3 classes in each. Each tribe with 3 trittyes was composed of new units called demes (local parishes).

* Old clans and noble families now possessed far less political significance because they were now able to control only one-third of each tribe.

* Citizenship was now based on locality, with citizenship being granted to metics (foreign tradesmen) and other aliens resident in and around Athens.

* The army was reorganised, with each tribe supplying one regiment and one general. These 10 generals (or "strategoi") were, at first, under control of the polemarch but later were to become the chief magistrates.

* The boule was enlarged to five hundred, 50 from each tribe, divided into 10 committees of 50, called prytanies. Each committee was in charge of administration and government for a month, so that more people were now directly involved in government.

* This council was to be the supreme executive and administrative body of government, to prepare business for the assembly, in charge of foreign policy, finance and public works and supervise the magistrates.

* The areopagus was still to have powers of censorship and deal with homicide cases.

* The assembly was to consist of all citizens over 20 years of age and to be the final authority, pass laws and decrees, vote on war, peace and taxes.

* The people's courts were enlarged, juries were selected by lot, courts were used for appeals and for civil cases.

* Ostracism was introduced. At a meeting of the assembly once a year, voters named a person to be sent into exile; 6,000 votes were needed, 10 years' exile, although not leading to loss of citizenship or property, was intended as a safeguard against tyranny.